International migration has had a profound impact on Türkiye over the last decade. Regional conflicts, foremost among which being the Syrian Civil War, and widespread instability have triggered numerous waves of forced migration into Türkiye. In addition to economic growth, the various work, investment, and education opportunities offered by Türkiye have attracted many more to relocate to the country voluntarily. The number of regular migrants hosted by Türkiye reached 4.6 million by the end of 2023. This total included 3.2 million Syrian nationals with temporary protective status, 1,113,761 foreign nationals living in Türkiye with residence permits, and 262,638 nations of other countries with international protective status.
Official figures from 2023 show a decrease of 200 thousand residence permits compared to the previous year. While the number of Russian and Ukrainian nationals legally residing in Türkiye fell by approximately thirty percent toward the end of 2023 following the crisis that embroiled both countries. Meanwhile, the number of Syrian nationals with temporary protective status decreased by roughly half a million over the previous two years. Factors contributing to this decline include repatriation to Syria, the acquisition of Turkish citizenship, and relocation to third countries. As of 2023, a total of 600 thousand individuals were reported to have voluntarily returned to Syria, including forty to forty-two thousand returnees following the Türkiye–Syria earthquakes of 6 February 2023. An additional 238 thousand Syrian nationals were granted Turkish citizenship. While the number of Syrians resettled to third countries from Türkiye through various programs exceeded sixty thousand in 2023, the number of individuals applying for international protection during the same year dipped to around nineteen thousand—a forty-percent decrease compared to the previous year. Afghans (13,068), Iraqis (2,776), and Iranians (1,416) constituted the top three applicant nationalities, respectively.
The primary focus of Türkiye’s humanitarian efforts in 2023, including those dealing with migration, revolved around the emergency response and recovery operations undertaken to relieve the massive devastation wrought by the Türkiye–Syria earthquakes. While the epicenter of the first two earthquakes was in Türkiye’s Kahramanmaraş province, both Türkiye and Syria suffered staggering losses, with a combined death toll of fifty-eight thousand across both countries. Considering that roughly fifty percent of Türkiye’s Syrian population living in the country under temporary protection resided in the eleven provinces affected by the earthquakes, roughly 1.8 million of the total sixteen million affected individuals were either Syrian refugees or migrants of other countries.
The earthquakes inflicted severe psychological trauma upon Türkiye’s immigrant and native populations, leaving many displaced, their sources of livelihood destroyed, and their access to basic public services, including education, seriously disrupted. To facilitate the movement of Syrian refugees living in the earthquake zone, authorities temporarily suspended the domestic travel restrictions placed on them and introduced legislation allowing them to travel to Syria and return unhindered within six months. However, subsequent studies examining the situation of refugees and immigrants living in the affected region revealed that their status had only become more precarious as a result of the social and economic hardships they experienced following the disaster. Already displaced individuals lost their homes once again, faced ostracism as a result of mounting disinformation and hate speech, and were impeded from accessing information and essential public services. All of these factors only heightened the need for sustainable protective measures. Immigrants from Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, and Somalia reported facing social tension, difficulties finding work and housing, and rising rent prices after the earthquakes.
Immediately following the earthquakes, volunteers from throughout Türkiye and the greater world poured into the earthquake disaster zone, where they took part in search and rescue, emergency assistance, and relief operations led by AFAD, the Turkish Red Crescent (henceforth TRC), and other humanitarian organizations. Having been completely devastated by the earthquakes, the affected areas’ social networks and economies needed to be rebuilt from the ground up. As such, organizations and individuals from all segments of society and walks of life pooled their resources to see to the housing, educational, healthcare, psychological and financial needs of all those affected, including those of refugees and immigrants. The Turkish government, joined by various UN agencies, the EU, the IFRC, and domestic NGOs, spearheaded a coordinated, multi-pronged humanitarian response. The following is a non-exhaustive list of the projects that were part of this response:
- Collective Kindness—Provided cash assistance to help the most vulnerable households among migrant and local populations meet their basic needs [World Food Programme (WFP), IFRC, TRC].
- Children First—Provided families with children under the age of eighteen a one-time cash transfer [UNICEF, Turkish Ministry of Family and Social Services, TRC].
- Refugee Protection, Community Outreach and Solutions in Urban Areas Project—Provided protection services to people affected by earthquakes [UNHCR, Association for Solidarity with Asylum Seekers and Migrants (ASAM)].
- Evidence-based humanitarian response to people affected by earthquakes in Kahramanmaraş and Hatay provinces of Türkiye—Provided integrated protection and basic water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services to local and migrant communities, including people with disabilities [International Organization for Migration (IOM), EU].
- Child, Adolescent and Family Support Hubs—Provided protection and psychosocial support services to children and families affected by the earthquakes (UNICEF, SGDD).
- WFP Early Recovery by SES—Provided earthquake survivors employment opportunities(WFP, ASAM).
- Facilitating Access to Education for Earthquake Survivor Children (Turkish Ministry of Education, Taipei Economic and Cultural Mission in Ankara, ASAM).
- Empowerment Program with Local Support—Provided micro-grants to support projects developed by communities affected by the earthquakes (Support to Life, Center for Disaster Philanthropy).
- Rebuilding Lives: Empowering People Affected by Earthquakes—Provided humanitarian and financial support to 400 Afghan refugee and immigrant families living in the earthquake disaster zone (Turkish Philanthropy Funds, Afghan Refugees Solidarity Association).
Efforts to stem irregular migration were another major issue on Türkiye’s 2023 immigration policy agenda. An excess of 247 thousand irregular migrants were apprehended in 2023, a figure similar to the previous year. Topping this list were migrants from Afghanistan, followed by those from Syria. In addition to enhancing border security by building walls, electro-optical surveillance towers, and thermal camera outposts, mobile immigration patrols were deployed throughout Türkiye’s cities were increased to identify irregular migrants living with expired visas or residence permits. By December 2023, mobile immigration checkpoints had been established in all of Türkiye’s metropolitan cities. Of the roughly 143 thousand irregular migrants identified by these checkpoints, forty-seven thousand were moved to immigration detention centers to prepare them for their eventual deportation. Efforts continue to be taken to curb migrant smuggling and human trafficking, both of which, in addition to being major sources of irregular migration, pose significant threats to human safety worldwide. Government-led operations ended in the arrest of more than ten thousand migrant smugglers in 2023, the highest figure in the past decade. Türkiye’s coast guard report that more than fifty thousand irregular migrants were rescued and 152 migrant smugglers indicted as a result of their maritime operations. Beyond this, 211 instances of human trafficking were identified.
In line with Türkiye’s Strategy Document and National Action Plan on Irregular Migration 2021–2025, several projects were launched to enhance border governance, root out irregular migration at its source, expedite voluntary repatriation, and foster international collaborative initiatives. These include:
- Enforcing Capacities for Application of Alternative Measures to Detention in Türkiye (ENACT)—Provided technical support to the Presidency of Migration Management and Provincial Directorates of Migration as they attempted to implement alternative measures to detention [Presidency of Migration Management, International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD)].
- Agreements were signed to create an electronic readmission case management system to expedite the safe and humane repatriation of Pakistan nationals living in Türkiye [Presidency of Migration Management, National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA)].
- Establishment of Assisted Voluntary Return Coordination Centres in Türkiye (RETOUR Project)—Inaugurated the Voluntary Return Coordination Centre in Istanbul [Presidency of Migration Management, ICMPD].
Moving on to regular migration in Türkiye, efforts are underway to develop systematic, data-driven policies, strengthen institutional capacities and inter-agency cooperation, restructure the national asylum system, and support migrants’ social and economic integration. These works involve key actors, such as Türkiye’s Presidency of Migration Management and TRC, as well as the IOM, UNHCR, ICMPD, local governments, and domestic NGOs. The following is a non-exhaustive list of projects either initiated or ongoing in 2023:
- Reinforce Effectiveness of National Asylum Procedures in Compliance with International Standards and National Legislation (Presidency of Migration Management, UNHCR),
- Strengthening Analysis and Operational Capacity to Improve the Regular Migration Policy Framework in Türkiye (Presidency of Migration Management, ICMPD),
- Agricultural Employment for Refugees and Turkish Citizens through Enhanced Market Linkages Project—Conducted as part of TRC’s Socio-economic Empowerment Program (TRC, World Bank, Agricultural Credit Cooperatives of Turkey); Support for Transition to Labor Market Project (World Bank, EU),
- Promoting Decent Work for Syrians Under Temporary Protection and Turkish Citizens—Aimed to facilitate access to the formal labor market (International Labour Organization, Türkiye’s Ministry of Labour and Social Security),
- Increasing Capacity of Municipalities on Migration Data Management Project—Supported fifteen pilot municipalities in their efforts to improve data-driven policies (RESLOG Turkey, Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation).
The year 2023 also saw Türkiye play an increasingly active role in shaping the agenda on international migration. As part of Türkiye’s efforts to develop bilateral and multilateral migration agreements, the International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) organized venues where multiple stakeholders could discuss and share information on effective migration management. Notable projects included the Vienna Migration Conference, which sought to develop sustainable solutions to global displacement, and MAGNET: Migration Management Authorities Networking Event, which aimed to enhance multi-actor operational cooperation in migration management (Presidency of Migration Management, ICMPD).
Alongside traditional methods for managing regular and irregular migration, new practices that externalize migration processing became increasingly widespread around the world. One notable example of such practices was the establishment of Safe Mobility Offices in South and Central American countries that cater to individuals seeking humanitarian protection and other legal migration pathways to the USA, Spain, and Canada. Albeit temporarily halted by the Albanian Constitutional Court, the Italy–Albania Deal sought to allow Albania to house up to thirty-six thousand migrants arriving in Italy by sea while their asylum applications were processed. This deal, like the controversial Tunisia–EU memorandum that sought to prevent irregular migration into Europe, is anticipated to be a focal point in next year’s discussions on how the EU’s New Pact on Migration and Asylum will shape international migration trends. The most significant development toward the end of 2023 was the forced displacement of approximately 1.8 million Palestinians as a result of Israel’s indiscriminate carpet bombing and intensification of the sixteen-year unlawful blockade of the Gaza Strip following Hamas’ 7 October attempt to break the inhumane siege imposed on ordinary Gazans by the Israeli state. This ever-deepening humanitarian crisis and potential forced displacements are expected to remain at the very fore of next year’s discussions on migration.
As for Türkiye, the post-earthquake era has highlighted the importance of implementing development-oriented migration policies that aim to enhance migrants’ resilience toward crises, that facilitate their ability to become self-sufficient, and that lead to their long-term socioeconomic empowerment. It is therefore important to implement mechanisms that, like the Türkiye Compact proposed by the UN Development Programme, not only promote new employment opportunities for migrants and local communities but also increase socioeconomic inclusivity.
1 Göç İdaresi Başkanlığı. (2023). İçişleri Bakanı Ali Yerlikaya: “Düzensiz göçmenlere ve göçmen kaçakçılığı organizatörlerine asla geçit vermiyoruz” https://www.goc. gov.tr/icisleri-bakani-ali-yerlikaya-duzensiz-gocmenlere-ve-gocmen-kacakciligi-organizatorlerine-asla-gecit-vermiyoruz
2 Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (TBMM). (2023). Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Genel Kurul Tutanağı, Tutanak Dergisi 28. Dönem 2. Yasama yılı 37. Birleşim https://tbmm.gov.tr/Tutanaklar/Tutanak?Id=a5c9f9d4-4774-4c7c-ab7b-018c71cda4cc&BaslangicSayfa=64&BitisSayfa=64
3 International Organization of Migration (IOM). (2023). MPMTürkiye Migrants’ Presence Monitoring Situation Report (November2023) https://reliefweb.int/report/turkiye/mpm-turkiye-migrants-presence-monitoring-situation-report-november-2023
4 2023 T.C. Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı. (2023). Kahramanmaraşve Hatay Depremleri Raporu. s. 9.
5 Kirişçi, K . (2023). After the earthquake: Refugees should be included in Turkey’s reconstruction https://www.brookings.edu/articles/after-the-earthquake– refugees-should-be-included-in-turkeys-reconstruction/; Kızılay Göç Programları Geliştirme ve Koordinasyon Müdürlüğü. (2023). Afetten etkilenen göçmen gruplar: Nisan 2023; Ağustos 2023.; Hayata Destek. (2023). Deprem Acil Durum Raporu https://www.hayatadestek.org/wp-content/ uploads/2023/10/231013_HayataDestek_Sitrep26.pdf; Duruel, M. Afetlerde Göçmen Olmak: 6 Şubat Depremi Hatay Örneği. Mukaddime, 14(2). s. 227-255.
6 Bhat, J. Mixed Migration Centre (2023) Türkiye-Syria earthquake’s impact on Afghan, Iranian, Iraqi and Somali refugees in Türkiye. s.5-6.
7 Göç İdaresi Başkanlığı. (2023). İçişleri Bakanı Ali Yerlikaya: “Düzensiz göçmenlere ve göçmen kaçakçiliği organizatörlerine asla geçit vermiyoruz” https://www.goc. gov.tr/icisleri-bakani-ali-yerlikaya-duzensiz-gocmenlere-ve-gocmen-kacakciligi-organizatorlerine-asla-gecit-vermiyoruz
8 Göç İdaresi Başkanlığı. (2023). ICMPD81. yürütme kurulu toplantısı Viyana’da gerçekleştirildi. https://www.goc.gov.tr/icmpd-81-yurutme-kurulu-toplantisi-viyanada-gerceklestirildi
9 United Nations.(2023). Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel – OCHA Flash Update #52 https://www.un.org/unispal/document/hostilities-in-the-gaza- strip-and-israel-ocha-flash-update-52/#:~:text=Over%201.8%20million%20 people%20in,156%20UNRWA%20facilities%20across%20Gaza.
10 Birleşmiş Milletler Kalkınma Programı (UNDP). (2023). Türkiye kompaktı fizibilite çalışması https://www.undp.org/turkiye/publications/feasibility-study-turkiye-compact